1. SPORT
Sport is all forms of
physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical fitness and provide
entertainment to participants. Sport may be
competitive, where a winner or winners can be identified by objective means, and may require a degree of
skill, especially at higher levels. Some non-physical activities, such as
board games and
card games are sometimes referred to as sports, but a sport is generally recognised as being based in physical
athleticism.
Sports are usually governed by a set of
rules or
customs. Physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first often define the result of a sport. However, the degree of skill and performance in some sports such as
diving,
dressage and
figure skating is judged according to well-defined criteria. This is in contrast with other judged activities such as
beauty pageants and
body building, where skill does not have to be shown and the criteria are not as well defined.
Sport is often played the sport of football.Cristiano Ronaldo, OIH (born in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, February 5, 1985 is a Portuguese football player. He can be position as playing as a left or right wing and center forward. He currently plays for Spanish team, Real Madrid and Portugal national team. Before playing for Real Madrid, he had played at Sporting Lisbon and Manchester United. Ronaldo is a player football who can play with both feet, which makes him able to play anywhere: right, left or through the middle. This resulted in Ronaldo and fellow football player in Manchester United's Ryan Giggs can exchange positions. Ronaldo has the technical ability hebat.Selain multi-step-over move, he also developed many other skills, makes him very agile and as a winger that can not be predicted movements. Besides the ability to process incredible ball, he is also an expert in executing the dead balls, that's what made it one of the most dangerous player for his opponent, he can score goals in any way.
Lionel Messi (born 24 June 1987) is an Argentine footballer who plays for FC Barcelona and captains the Argentina national team, mainly as an forward. Messi received several Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year nominations by the age of 21, and won in 2009 and 2010. His playing style and small stature has drawn comparisons to Diego Maradona, who himself declared Messi as his "successor. In June 2004, he debuted for Argentina, playing in an under-20 friendly match against Paraguay. In 2005 he was part of a team that won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship in the Netherlands. There, he won the Golden Ball and the Golden Shoe, scoring in the last four of Argentina's matches and netting a total of six for the tournament. He made his full international debut on 17 August 2005 against Hungary at the age of 18. He was substituted on during the 63rd minute, but was sent off on the 65th minute because the referee, Markus Merk, found he had headbutted defender Vilmos Vanczák, who was tugging Messi's shirt. The decision was contentious and Maradona even claimed the decision was pre-meditated. Messi returned to the team on 3 September in Argentina's 1–0 World Cup qualifier away defeat to Paraguay. Ahead of the match he had said "This is a re-debut. The first one was a bit short." He then started his first game for Argentina against Peru; after the match Pekerman described Messi as "a jewel". On 28 March 2009, in a World Cup Qualifier against
Venezuela, Messi wore the number 10 jersey for the first time with Argentina. This match was the first official match for Diego Maradona as the Argentina manager. Argentina won the match 4–0 with Messi opening the scoring.
Ronaldinho was born in the city of
Porto Alegre, the state capital of
Rio Grande do Sul. His mother,
Dona Miguelina Elói Assis dos Santos (daughter of Enviro Assis), is a former salesperson who studied to become a nurse. His father, João de Assis Moreira, was a shipyard worker and footballer for local club Esporte Clube Cruzeiro (not to be confused with
Cruzeiro). He suffered a fatal heart attack in the family swimming pool when Ronaldinho was eight. After Ronaldinho's older brother,
Roberto, signed with
Grêmio, the family moved to a home in the more affluent Guarujá section of Porto Alegre, which was a gift from Grêmio to convince Roberto to stay at the club. Roberto's career was ultimately cut short by injury. Ronaldinho's football skills began to blossom at the of age 8, and he was first given the nickname
Ronaldinho because he was often the youngest and the smallest player in youth club matches. He developed an interest in
futsal and beach football, which later expanded to organized football. His first brush with the media came at the age of thirteen, when he scored all 23 goals in a 23–0 victory against a local team. Ronaldinho was identified as a rising star at the
1997 U-17 World Championship in Egypt, in which he scored two goals on
penalty kicks.
Ricardo Kaka born 22 April 1982),
Brazilian football attacking midfielder who currently plays for Spanish
La Liga club
Real Madrid and the
Brazilian national team. Kaká started his footballing career at the age of eight, when he began playing for a local club. At the time, he also played tennis, and it was not until he moved on to
São Paulo FC and signed his first professional contract with the club at the age of fifteen that he chose to focus on football. Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite was born in
BrasÃlia to Bosco Izecson Pereira Leite (a
civil engineer) and Simone dos Santos (an elementary school teacher). He had a financially secure upbringing that allowed him to focus on both school and football at the same time. His younger brother Rodrigo (best known as
Digão) and cousin
Eduardo Delani are also professional footballers.
When he was seven, Kaká's family moved to
São Paulo. His school had arranged him in a local youth club called
"Alphaville," who qualified to the final in a local tournament. There he was discovered by hometown club
São Paulo FC, who offered an assignment. At the age of 18, Kaká suffered a career-threatening and possibly paralysis-inducing spinal fracture as a result of a swimming pool accident
but remarkably made a full recovery. He attributes his recovery to God and has since
tithed his income to his church.
José Antonio Reyes Calderón (born 1 September 1983) is a
Spanish professional
footballer who plays for
Atlético Madrid. Mainly a
left winger but also a
forward, he made his professional debuts for hometown's
Sevilla at only 16, signing with
England's
Arsenal aged 20. After a relatively successful career abroad, Reyes returned to his country, going on to represent both main sides in
Madrid,
Real and
Atlético, also having a short loan spell in
Portugal. Reyes joined the youth ranks of local
Sevilla FC at the age of 10. His talent was identified, and he represented the club at all youth levels. He finally signed a full contract in 1999, making his full squad debuts during
1999–2000 at just 16, in a game against
Real Zaragoza, and was later called up to
Spain's squad for the
UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship. With the
Andalusians now in
Segunda División, he added another first-team club appearance. After
Sevilla promoted, Reyes established his reputation as a versatile offensive unit in the following years, his 22 goals in 86 matches over four seasons at Sevilla leading to other clubs taking notice, although the player's popularity with the club's fans made a move to a bigger Spanish club politically difficult for Sevilla's club president.
2. SCIENCE
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and
predictions about the
universe. An older and closely related meaning still in use today is that found for example in
Aristotle, whereby "science" refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and
rationally explained. Scince
classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to
philosophy. In the
early modern era the two words, "science" and "philosophy", were sometimes used interchangeably in the
English language. By the 17th century, "natural philosophy" (which is today called "
natural science") had begun to be considered separately from "philosophy" in general. However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as
library science or
political science.
David Hume (7 May [
O.S. 26 April] 1711 – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical
empiricism and
skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of
Western philosophy and the
Scottish Enlightenment. Hume is often grouped with
John Locke,
George Berkeley, and a handful of others as a
British Empiricist. As Hume's options lay between a traveling tutorship and a stool in a merchant's office, he chose the latter. In 1734, after a few months occupied with commerce in
Bristol, he went to
La Flèche in
Anjou, France. There he had frequent discourse with the
Jesuits of the
College of La Flèche. As he had spent most of his savings during his four years there while writing
A Treatise of Human Nature, he resolved "to make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency of fortune, to maintain unimpaired my independency, and to regard every object as contemptible except the improvements of my talents in literature". He completed the
Treatise at the age of 26.
Although many scholars today consider the
Treatise to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in Western philosophy, the critics in
Great Britain at the time did not agree, describing it as "abstract and unintelligible". Despite the disappointment, Hume later wrote, "Being naturally of a cheerful and
sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country". There, he wrote the
Abstract[Without revealing his authorship, he aimed to make his larger work more intelligible.
After the publication of
Essays Moral and Political in 1744, Hume applied for the Chair of Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy at the
University of Edinburgh. However, the position was given to
William Cleghorn, after Edinburgh ministers petitioned the town council not to appoint Hume because he was seen as an
atheist.
Alexander Stoddart (born in
Edinburgh, 1959) is a
Scottish sculptor, who, since 2008, has been
Her Majesty's Sculptor in Ordinary in Scotland. He works primarily on figurative sculpture in clay within the
neoclassical tradition. Stoddart is best known for his civic monuments, including 10 feet (3.0 m) bronze statues of David Hume and Adam Smith, philosophers during the Scottish Enlightenment, on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh, and others of
James Clerk Maxwell and
John Witherspoon. Stoddart says of his own motivation, "My great ambition is to do sculpture for Scotland", primarily through large civic monuments to figures from the country's past. There he settled on sculpture and initially worked within the modernist vogue. Stoddart has recalled an epiphany moment several times: when, after finishing a riveted metal pop-art sculpture (praised by his tutors) he found a bust of the
Apollo Belvedere, "I thought my pop-riveted thing was rubbish by comparison. It's extraordinarily easy to pop-rivet two bits of metal together and extraordinarily difficult to make a figure like the Apollo, but I thought I had to try."Stoddart wrote his undergraduate thesis on the life and work of
John Mossman, an English sculptor who worked in Scotland for fifty years. His work remains an influence on Stoddart. Stoddart graduated in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, first class, though he was demoralised by his peers' ignorance of the
art history: "the name
Raphael meant nothing to them". He went on to read
History of Art at the
University of Glasgow. Afterwards, he worked for six "difficult" years in the studio of
Ian Hamilton Finlay. Although Hamilton Finlay is considered one of the most important Scottish artists of the 20th century, Stoddart profoundly disagrees with his working methods: "Finlay was the godfather of a problem that's rampant everywhere today. He called the people who made his work 'collaborators'. What we call them nowadays is 'fabricators'. They're talented people who are plastically capable, but they never meet their 'artist'. They're grateful, desperate and thwarted."
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that
Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of
classical mechanics with the laws of the
electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his
special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to
gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the
general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of
statistical mechanics and
quantum theory, which led to his explanations of
particle theory and the
motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the
photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the
universe as a whole. In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the
capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious
Annalen der Physik. On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with
Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the
University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions". That same year, which has been called Einstein's
annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published
four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world. By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the
University of Bern. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics
docent at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at
Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932) and a professor at the
Humboldt University of Berlin, with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the
Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the
German Physical Society (1916–1918).
His monograph
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of
classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described
universal gravitation and
the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical
universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on
Earth and of
celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between
Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about
heliocentrism and advancing the
Scientific Revolution. The
Principia is generally considered to be one of the most important scientific books ever written, due, independently, to the specific physical laws the work successfully described, and for the style of the work, which assisted in setting standards for scientific publication down to the present time. In June 1661, he was admitted to
Trinity College, Cambridge as a
sizar a sort of work-study role.
At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of
Aristotle, but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers, such as
Descartes, and of
astronomers such as
Copernicus,
Galileo, and
Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalised
binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became
infinitesimal calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the
Great Plague. Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student, Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus,
optics and the
law of gravitation (see "Apple incident" section below). In 1667, he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Trinity.
3. POLITIC
Politics is a process by which groups of people make
collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil
governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the
corporate,
academic, and
religious segments of society. It consists of "social relations involving
authority or
power" and refers to the regulation of public affairs within a political unit, and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply
policy.
Lewis Henry Morgan (November 21, 1818 – December 17, 1881) was a pioneering American
anthropologist and social theorist, a
railroad lawyer and
capitalist. He is best known for his work on
kinship and social structure, his theories of social
evolution, and his
ethnography of the
Iroquois. Interested in what holds societies together, he proposed the concept that the earliest human domestic institution was the
matrilineal clan, not the
patriarchal family; the idea was accepted by most pre-historians and
anthropologists throughout the late nineteenth century. Also interested in what leads to social change, he was a contemporary of the European social theorists
Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, who were influenced by reading his work on social structure and material culture, the influence of technology on progress. Morgan is the only American social theorist to be cited by such diverse scholars as Marx,
Charles Darwin, and
Sigmund Freud. Elected as a member of the
National Academy of Sciences, Morgan served as president of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1879. In 1855 Morgan and other Rochester businessmen invested in the expanding metals industry of the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan. After a brief sojourn on the 5-man board of the Iron Mountain Railroad, Morgan joined them in creating the Bay de Noquet and Marquette Railroad Company, connecting the entire Upper Peninsula by a single, ore-bearing line. He became its attorney and director. At that time the U.S. government was selling lands previously confiscated from the natives in cases where the sale benefited the public good. Although the Upper Peninsula was known for its great natural beauty, the discovery of iron persuaded Morgan and others to develop wide-scale mining and industrialization of the peninsula. He spent the next few years between Washington, lobbying for the sale of the land to his company, and in large cities such as Detroit and Chicago, where he fought law suits to prevent competitors from taking it. Morgan vigorously defended American capitalism to protect his own interests. After the stockholders refused to pay him for some of his legal work, he all but withdrew from business in favor of field work in anthropology.
Ismail Suko is a politician from Riau, also known as the martyrs of democracy Riau. (born in Rokan Hulu regency, Riau, June 15, 1939, age 72 years). Ismail Suko in pursuit of its political history ever made is phenomenal, and shocked the world politics at the time of Riau. Because, at that time considered daring Ismail Suko against the New Order government and participate in the Democratic party or the election of Governor of Riau in 1985, Ismail Suko forward as a candidate Governor with his political rival Imam Munandar of Golkar Party. From the acquisition of voice, is actually far surpasses Suko Ismail, and his end was elected Governor of Riau. But by then the power of the new order regime, under the rule of President Suharto did not recognize Ismal Suko as governor-elect, although politically, Ismail Suko superior voice of Imam Munandar. Because of the urgent and continued forced to retreat by the central government, Ismail Suko eventually forced to retreat, and Imam Munandar inaugurated as Governor of Riau for the second time then. But really, too, the disappointment was not too long, because a few years later his son Septina Primawati, who inherited the leadership carpenter who owned it, is finally deflowered and become the wife to the Riau Governor Rusli Zainal, who served now.
Surya Paloh Rencong born in the Land, in an area that was never colonized by the Dutch. He was big in the city Siantar, North Sumatra, in an area that led to such major figures of TB Simatupang, Adam Malik, Parada Harahap, AM Sipahutar, Harun Nasution. He became a businessman in the city of Medan, which raise the PNI leaders and business leaders TD Pardede. Political activity that causes Surya Paloh moved to Jakarta, became members of the Assembly two periods. Precisely in this metropolitan city, then known as Surya Paloh a young entrepreneur Indonesia. Surya Paloh familiar with the business world when he was Young. School while he was traded tea, dried fish, jute sacks, etc.. He bought it from two people 'toke' friend and teacher in the world of business, then sold to some small tavern or to the estate (PTP-PTP). While trade, Surya Paloh also pursue studies at the Faculty of Law University of North Sumatra and the Faculty of Social Politics, Islamic University of North Sumater, Medan. In a city famous for loud and chaotic, the desire to organize that has developed since the city Siantar, flourished in him. The situation at the time, was directing them active in mass organizations that are equally wrong policies of the government opposing
the old order. Surya Paloh become one of the leaders of Indonesian Students YouthActionUnit(KAPPI).
Walking that success, he saw an opportunity in the business press publications. Surya Paloh establish priorities Daily Newspapers. The newspaper is printed in color, hard sell. Familiar with such a broad audience to the regions. Unfortunately, the daily newspaper did not live long, pull the trigger on his SIUPP by the government. Its content is considered less in accordance with the Code of Journalistic Ethics Indonesia.
Jend. Army (Ret.) Dr. H. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born in Tremas, Arjosari, Pacitan, East Java, Indonesia, 9 September 1949, age 60 years) was the 6th President of Indonesia who served since October 20, 2004. He, along with Vice President Muhammad Jusuf Kalla, was elected in the presidential election of 2004. He managed to continue his administration for the second period with back to win the 2009 Presidential election, this time with Vice President Boediono. Thus, since the reform era began, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is Indonesia's first president who complete the presidency for 5 years and successfully re-elected for second term. Shown as the Armed Forces faction spokesman ahead of the 1998 General Session held on March 9, 1998 and Chairman of the Armed Forces faction in the MPR Special Session of the Assembly in 1998. On October 29, 1999, he was appointed as Minister of Mines and Energy in the government led by President Abdurrahman Wahid. A year later, on October 26, 1999, he was appointed as Coordinating Minister for Political, Social, and Security (Coordinating Polsoskam) as a consequence of a rearrangement of the cabinet Abdurrahman Wahid.Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono also formed UKP3R, an institution of the presidency, chaired by Marsilam Simandjuntak on October 26, 2006 . This institution at the beginning of its formation opposition from the Golkar Party as the issue does not involve the Vice President Jusuf Kalla in its formation and establishment of the issue to trim authority UKP3R Vice President, but finally accepted after SBY explained in a press statement.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a
Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century
Romanticism. His
political philosophy influenced the
French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought. His novel
Emile: or, On Education is a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His
sentimental novel Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise was of importance to the development of pre-romanticism and
romanticism in fiction. Perhaps Rousseau's most important work is
The Social Contract, which outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of
classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in an earlier work, the article
Economie Politique (
Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's
Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they."
4. RELIGION
His translation of the Bible into the language of the people (instead of
Latin) made it more accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture. It fostered the development of a standard version of the
German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the translation into English of the
King James Bible. His
hymns influenced the development of singing in churches. His marriage to
Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of
clerical marriage, allowing Protestant priests to marry. In his later years, while suffering from several illnesses and deteriorating health, Luther became increasingly
antisemitic, writing that Jewish homes should be destroyed, their synagogues burned, money confiscated and liberty curtailed. These statements have contributed to his controversial status. Luther dedicated himself to
monastic life, devoting himself to
fasting, long hours in
prayer,
pilgrimage, and frequent
confession. He would later remark, "If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them." Luther described this period of his life as one of deep spiritual despair. He said, "I lost touch with Christ the Savior and Comforter, and made of him the jailor and hangman of my poor soul."
Johann von Staupitz, his superior, concluded that Luther needed more work to distract him from excessive introspection and ordered him to pursue an academic career. In 1507, he was ordained to the priesthood, and in 1508 began teaching
theology at the
University of Wittenberg. He received a Bachelor's degree in Biblical studies on 9 March 1508, and another Bachelor's degree in the
Sentences by
Peter Lombard in 1509.
On 19 October 1512, he was awarded his
Doctor of Theology and, on 21 October 1512, was received into the senate of the theological faculty of the University of
Wittenberg, having been called to the position of
Doctor in Bible. He spent the rest of his career in this position at the University of Wittenberg.
Johann von Staupitz (28 December 1524) was a
theologian, university preacher, Vicar-General of the
Augustinian Order in Germany who supervised
Martin Luther during a critical period in that man's spiritual life. Martin Luther himself remarked, "If it had not been for Dr. Staupitz, I should have sunk in hell." Although he died a Catholic monk and repudiated the Protestant Reformation, he is commemorated on 8 November as a priest in the
Calendar of Saints of the
Lutheran Church. Von Staupitz was born in
Motterwitz ca. 1460. Descended from an old
Saxony family, he
matriculated in the year 1485 and officially joined the order in
Munich before relocated to
Tübingen where he received promotion to the rank of
prior. In 1500 Von Staupitz was made Doctor of
Theology and achieved election to the post of
Vicar general of the German Congregation of Augustinians in 1503. He was also made dean of the theology faculty at the University of
Wittenberg when it was founded in 1502. In 1512, while in his 50s, Von Staupitz resigned his professorship and relocated to the southern part of
Germany, resigning his vicar-generalship officially in 1520. In 1522 he accepted an offer from the
Benedictines inviting him to join their order, becoming
Abbot of St Peter's in
Salzburg.
It was in Erfurt, as Augustinian Superior, that Von Staupitz first met Martin Luther, a young monk plagued by persistent thoughts of spiritual inadequacy. Luther felt compelled to confess to Von Staupitz everything sinful the young man may have ever done.
Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan (born in Yogyakarta, August 1, 1868 - died in Yogyakarta, February 23, 1923 at age 54 years) is a National Hero of Indonesia. He was the fourth son of seven children from families KH Abu Bakr. KH Abu Bakr is a scholar and a leading preacher in the mosque at the time of Yogyakarta Sultanate, and the mother of KH Ahmad Dahlan was the daughter of H. Ibrahim, who also served as the prince of Yogyakarta Sultanate at that time. The idea of renewal Muhammadiyah distributed by Ahmad Dahlan by holding sermons to various cities, while also through trade relationships he had. This idea was getting a great reception from the public in various cities in Indonesia. Scholars from various other regions came to him to express support for the Muhammadiyah. Muhammadiyah increasingly grown almost all over Indonesia. Therefore, on May 7, 1921 Dahlan appealed to the Dutch Government to establish Muhammadiyah branches all over Indonesia. This request was granted by the Dutch Government on 2 September 1921. As a democratic movement in carrying out missionary activities of Muhammadiyah, Dahlan also facilitates the Muhammadiyah members to the process of job evaluation and selection of leaders in Muhammadiyah. During his life in missionary activity of the Muhammadiyah movement, has held twelve meetings of members (once a year), who then used the term AIgemeene Vergadering (public hearing). In 1912, Ahmad Dahlan founded Muhammadiyah organization was to carry out the ideals of renewal of Islam in the archipelago. Ahmad Dahlan want to organize a reform in the way of thinking and work under the guidance of Islam. He would like to invite Indonesia to return Muslims to live according to the guidance of the Qur'an and al-Hadith. This society stands coincide on November 18, 1912. And since the beginning of Dahlan has determined that the Muhammadiyah is not a political organization but a social nature and working in the field of education.
Lutheranism is a major branch of
Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of
Martin Luther, a
German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the
Protestant Reformation. Beginning with the
95 Theses, Luther's writings disseminated internationally, spreading the ideas of the Reformation beyond the ability of governmental and churchly authorities to control it.
The name "Lutheran" originated as a derogatory term used against Luther by
Johann Eck during the
Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other
Roman Catholics followed the traditional practice of naming a heresy after its leader, thus labeling all who identified with the
theology of Martin Luther as Lutherans.
Martin Luther always disliked the term, preferring instead to describe the reform movement with the term "Evangelical", which was derived from
euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good news", "Gospel." Lutherans themselves began to use the term in the middle of the 16th century in order to identify themselves from other groups, such as
Philippists and
Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in
Wittenberg used the title "Lutheran" to describe their church.
Paul Paulus VI born (26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978), reigned as
Pope of the Catholic Church from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding
Pope John XXIII, who had convened the
Second Vatican Council, he decided to continue it. He fostered improved ecumenical relations with Orthodox and Protestants, which resulted in many historic meetings and agreements.
Montini served in the Vatican's Secretariat of State from 1922 to 1954. While in the Secretariat of State, Montini and
Domenico Tardini were considered as the closest and most influential co-workers of
Pope Pius XII, who named him in 1954 Archbishop of Milan, the largest Italian diocese, yet denying him the Cardinal designation that traditionally accompanies being Archbishop of Milan, a function which made him automatically Secretary of the Italian Bishops Conference. John XXIII elevated him to the
College of Cardinals in 1958, and after the death of John XXIII, Montini was considered one of his most likely successors.
He took on the name Paul to indicate a renewed worldwide mission to spread the message of Christ. He re-opened the Second Vatican Council, which was automatically closed with the death of John XXIII, and gave it priority and direction. After the Council concluded its work, Paul VI took charge of the interpretation and implementation of its mandates, often walking a thin line between the conflicting expectations of various groups within the Roman Catholic Church. The magnitude and depth of the reforms affecting all areas of Church life during his pontificate exceeded similar reform policies of his predecessors and successors. Paul VI was a Marian devotee, speaking repeatedly to Marian congresses and
mariological meetings, visiting Marian shrines and issuing three Marian encyclicals. Following his famous predecessor
Ambrose of Milan, he named Mary to be the
Mother of the Church during the Vatican Council.
Paul VI sought dialogue with the world, with other Christians, other religions, and atheists, excluding nobody. He saw himself as a humble servant for a suffering humanity and demanded significant changes of the rich in America and Europe in favour of the poor in the Third World. His positions on
birth control (see
Humanae Vitae) and other issues were controversial in Western Europe and North America, but were applauded by people in Eastern and Southern Europe and Latin America. His pontificate took place during sometimes revolutionary changes in the world, student revolts, the
Vietnam War and other upheavals. Paul VI tried to understand it all but at the same time defend the
Deposit of Faith as it was entrusted to him. Paul VI died on 6 August 1978, the Feast of the
Transfiguration. The diocesan process for beatification of Paul VI began on 11 May 1993.
5. SOCIAL
The term
social refers to a characteristic of living organisms (humans in particular, though biologists also apply the term to populations of other animals). It always refers to the interaction of organisms with other organisms and to their collective co-existence, irrespective of whether they are aware of it or not, and irrespective of whether the interaction is
voluntary or
involuntary.
Ferdinand de Saussure 26 November 1857 – 22 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in
linguistics in the 20th century. He is widely considered one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics. However, most modern linguists and philosophers of language consider his ideas outdated.While Saussure's concepts particularly
semiotics have received little to no attention in modern linguistic textbooks, his ideas have significantly influenced the
humanities and
social sciences. By the latter half of the 20th century, many of Saussure's ideas were under heavy criticism. His linguistic ideas are considered important in their time, but outdated and superseded by developments such as
cognitive linguistics. In 1972,
Noam Chomsky described Saussurean linguistics as an impoverished and thoroughly inadequate conception of language, while in 1984, Marcus Mitchell declared that Saussurean linguistics were fundamentally inadequate to process the full range of
natural language held by no current researchers, to my knowledge. The field of linguistics shifted its focus from Saussurean single word analysis to analysis of whole sentences. Holland notes that up to the 1950s Saussure enjoyed some legitimacy in linguistics, but with the
cognitive revolution which began in 1957, Chomsky had decisively refuted Saussure. She writes: Much of Chomsky's work is not accepted by other linguists.
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (16 August 1832 - 31 August 1920 in Germany) was a
German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the father of
experimental psychology. In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the
University of Leipzig. By creating this laboratory he was able to explore the nature of religious beliefs, identify mental disorders and abnormal behavior, and find damaged parts of the brain. In doing so, he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other topics. He also formed the first
journal for psychological research in 1881. In 1886, in his book
Ethics, Wundt formulated the famous expression
heterogony of ends (
Heterogonie der Zwecke).
Though Wundt wrote extensively on a variety of subjects including philosophy, physics, physiology, psycholinguistics, and of course psychology, the immensity of his collected writings and the 65 year-long duration of his career makes it difficult to identify a single, coherent mode of thought. Wundt is argued by some writers to have been a devout
foundationalist, working tirelessly to understand the intricacies of the areas of knowledge he studied to form a coherent,
atomistic understanding of the universe. In recognition of Wundt's work, the
American Psychological Association established the Wilhelm Wundt-
William James Award for Exceptional Contributions to Trans Atlantic Psychology, which recognizes "a significant record of trans-Atlantic research collaboration.
David Emile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French
sociologist. He formally established the academic discipline and, with
Karl Marx and
Max Weber, is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern
social science and father of sociology.
As the society, Durkheim noted there are several possible
pathologies that could lead to a breakdown of
social integration and disintegration of the society: the two most important ones are
anomie and forced division of labor; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide. By anomie Durkheim means a state when too rapid population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups, which in turns leads a breakdown of understanding (norms, values, and so on). By forced division of labor Durkheim means a situation where power holders, driven by their desire for
profit (
greed), results in people doing the work they are unsuited for. Such people are unhappy, and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society.
Durkheim's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions. He believed that crime is "bound up with the fundamental conditions of all
social life" and serves a social function. He stated that crime implies, not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes. Examining the
trial of Socrates, he argues that "his crime, namely, the independence of his thought, rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country" as "it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed". As such, his crime "was a useful prelude to reforms". In this sense, he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society. He further stated that "the authority which the moral
conscience enjoys must not be excessive; otherwise, no-one would dare to criticize it, and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form. To make progress, individual originality must be able to express itself the originality of the crimina shall also be possible".
Johana Sunarti Nasution was born 1 November 1923, Surabaya. During his life, Johana Sunarti Nasution active in various social activities, including setting up various foundations such as the Community Development Foundation Speech Vacana Mandira Jambangan Love Foundation, the Foundation Development and Mother Care, Foundation "Panti Usada Honor" and Santi Rama Foundation. Over a wide range of services and social activities, Mrs. Nas never have the grace of a number of honors from the government, including Social Worship Lantjana Satya in 1971, Satya Bhakti Main Badges Persit Kartika Chandra Kirana, (February 20, 1989), Stars struggle Force 45 (17 August 1995) and Star Key Maha Putra (August 15, 1995). Meanwhile, a number of awards from abroad who had received the Premio Italiano Centro Culturale Adelaide Ristori Anno VIII in 1976, awards Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service (August 31, 1981) as well as awards Paul Harris Fellow Award of Rotary Foundation of Rotary International America in 1982. Nas's mother once in a media interview, in which he asserted, that in this life in children since they were little better instilled a sense of idealism. Although only slightly, but able to bring the Indonesian people toward a better, and not just selfish. There's hope for Indonesia to become a strong nation and state, such coveted by both founding and development actors, as the next generation of national struggle in the future. As long as they are able to carry out the mandate of the national struggle, ie maintaining the unity and integrity of the nation.
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) is an English philosopher and political theorist famous liberal. Although currently more famous Spencer as "Father of Social Darwinism," a school of thought on the theory of the fittes surfifal in human society. Besides, he also contributed immensely in various other areas including ethics, metaphysics, religion, politics, rhetoric, biology and psychology. Although many people who criticize him, he was one of the most brilliant thinkers of his generation. Spencer's early work shows the liberal view of labor rights and responsibilities of government. He then developed the idea of rational philosophy based on natural law developments. This view is in a manuscript he ragkum Social Statics in 1851. In 1862, Spencer's First Principles, published as an explanation of his theory of evolution. In one of the sociology of Herbert Spencer's thinking is social Darwinism. He supposes the people are in a line of Darwinian evolution. In the course of evolution that took place selection, he is strong who win like that happen in nature. For Spencer at the end of evolution, when they are weak had been knocked out, there was a quality community. Some of the works of Spencer, among others: Social Statics (1850), Principles of Biology (1864-67), Principles of Psychology (1870-72), Principes of Sociology (1876-96), Principles of Ethics (1879-93), and The Study of Sociology (1873).
TUGAS BAHASA INGGRIS
OLEH :
NAMA : RINALDO SIMBOLON
NIM ` : 08111005023
JURUSAN/FAK : ILMU KELAUTAN / MIPA
PROGRAM STUDI ILMU KELAUTAN
LEMBAGA BAHASA
UNIVERSITAS SRIWIJAYA
INDRALAYA
2011
